Chapter 1. Carthage:
The Wine Port of the Ancient Mediterranean
Introduction
This website will feature a full series of articles under the title “Alcohol Trade – International and Domestic. Excise Duties and Filling the Treasury.”
Alcohol is a universal commodity. It combines luxury and necessity, indulgence and taxation. Containers of wine, rum, and brandy have crossed seas, broken borders, and served as instruments of diplomacy and political pressure.
The history of international alcohol trade is not only about wine in a cup or froth on a pint of beer. It is also a story of how humanity measured wealth in amphorae, built diplomatic bridges with barrels of cognac, and fought wars over taxes on a pint of ale.
From the markets of Carthage to the conference halls of the 21st century, alcohol has always been more than a drink. It has served as currency, a luxury item, and at times a weapon. Through it, treasuries were filled, emperors secured power, monks repaired monastery roofs, and politicians decided the fate of nations.
Alcohol is a universal language. It was understood on the banks of the Nile and in the taverns of Novgorod, in the wine cellars of Paris and at negotiations in Washington. Sometimes it warmed friendships, sometimes it poured oil on the fire of conflict.
And if we trace the journey from the first amphora of wine exchanged for olive oil to the blockchain-marked bottles of prosecco in the future, we will see that behind every barrel or bottle lies not only taste, but also politics, money, and the fate of entire peoples.
►1.1 The Foundation of Carthage
Carthage stood on the territory of modern Tunisia, by a bay opening into the Mediterranean. It was founded around the 9th century BCE (traditionally 814 BCE) by the Phoenicians from the city of Tyre (in present-day Lebanon). The Phoenicians were a Semitic people, related to the Canaanites, Hebrews, and Arameans. The very word “Phoenicians” is Greek (Phoiníkēs, literally “the purple people,” after their famous dye) [1]. They themselves preferred to call themselves Canaanites, or simply by the name of their city (Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, etc.).
[1] This refers to the famous Tyrian purple — a dye produced from the murex sea snail. Extracted drop by drop from a tiny gland, it changed color under sunlight: from yellow to red to a deep violet. The process was laborious: thousands of mollusks were needed for a single gram of dye. As a result, it was worth more than gold and became a symbol of royal authority, priestly privilege, and immense wealth. In Rome, laws regulated who had the right to wear purple. Dye workshops were usually placed outside city walls, near the shore — the smell was unbearable, described as a mix of rotten fish, sulfur, and decay. Yet the result was unique: fabric dyed in Tyrian purple never faded, even in the sun or water. In fact, the more it was worn, the richer and deeper the shade became. This made purple the perfect emblem of power and eternity. Thanks to this dye, the Phoenicians became the “luxury monopolists” of the Mediterranean, their name known from Egypt to Spain.
Note: The Phoenician alphabet formed the basis for the Greek alphabet and, indirectly, the Latin one.
The name Carthage (Latin Carthago) comes from the Phoenician Qart-ḥadašt (Hebrew: קרת חדשת), meaning “New City.” It was founded as a counterpart to the “Old City” of Tyre. Its location was ideal: a sheltered bay, proximity to trade routes, and fertile lands nearby.
…North African coast, 9th century BCE.
A Phoenician ship from Tyre, long and narrow, its prow raised high, enters a quiet bay. The air smells of salt and pitch, the scorching sun burns the sailors’ backs. The captain, a tanned man with an earring in his ear, points toward the shore:
— This land is good. See? A river with fresh water, and those slopes will surely grow grapes. The bay is deep; our ships will find shelter here from storms.
A young sailor asks, astonished:
— But we are so far from Tyre. Why settle here?
The captain smiles, adjusting his purple cloak:
— Tyre is cramped, and our neighbors are greedy. Here the sea is open, the road to the riches of Spain and Sicily close at hand. We will build a new city. A new Tyre.
He thrusts his spear into the sand, and the crew shouts:
— Qart-ḥadašt! A New City!
In reality, the Phoenicians reached the North African coast because of scarce land and resources in the Levant. Their city-states (Tyre, Sidon) were small but commanded strong fleets, allowing them to establish colonies all across the Mediterranean. Carthage became the most successful of them. It was not their only colony:
→ Utica — older than Carthage, one of the first Phoenician outposts in Africa. Located in present-day Tunisia, three centuries senior to Carthage. After Carthage was destroyed, Utica became the capital of the Roman province Africa.
→ Settlements and trading posts on Sardinia and Corsica.
→ On Sicily, they founded Motya and Panormus (modern Palermo).
→ In southern Spain, they established Gades, today’s Cádiz.
→ Bases in Morocco and access to the Atlantic, reaching even the Canary and Balearic Islands.
The Phoenicians moved in “trade chains”: Tyre → Cyprus → Sicily → Carthage → Spain → the Atlantic. Over time, Carthage became the central hub of this system, surpassing Tyre itself.
►1.2 The Reasons for Carthage’s Rise
→ Maritime Trade. Carthage inherited the Phoenician tradition of seafaring and commerce — above all in wine and olive oil.
→ Agriculture. Thanks to its fertile soils, Carthage became one of the major agricultural centers of antiquity, producing grain, wine, and olives.
→ The Navy. Carthage commanded one of the strongest fleets of the ancient world, securing control over the western Mediterranean.
→ Culture. Carthage was a true “crossroads of civilizations” — blending Phoenician, Berber, and Greek traditions.
…Syracuse, 5th century BCE.
On the bustling main square, amid stalls filled with amphorae and bolts of cloth, two Greek merchants exchange news.
The first, dusty from travel, waves his hands angrily:
— Wherever you sail, there they are! In Motya, their trading post. In Gades, their warehouses. On Sardinia, their ships. And now this Carthage — a new Tyre in the making!
The second, older and calmer, smiles:
— They are clever. They do not fight — they trade. And gold flows to them like a river. Even our best wines pass through their hands.
The first spits onto the paving stones:
— Merchants! And yet they hold half the Sea in their grip. We build poleis, they build warehouses and harbors. But it is they who grow rich.
Behind them, a caravan of slaves carries amphorae on their shoulders, while on the horizon white sails gleam — another Phoenician ship approaches the harbor…
→ 1.3 Carthage — The Eternal Rival of Rome
At first, Carthage competed with the Greek colonies of Sicily. Later its greatest adversary became Rome itself, in the struggle for control of the Mediterranean. Between them raged the three Punic Wars (264–146 BCE), and the Carthaginian general Hannibal entered history forever by crossing the Alps with his war elephants.
…Roman Senate, 150 BCE.
The tall marble columns cast long shadows; under the vaulted ceiling echoes the murmur of voices. Senators in white togas sit in a semicircle. Onto the rostrum steps Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder (234–149 BCE), holding a basket.
He sets it down. The senators lean forward — inside are ripe figs. Cato lifts one fruit and says:
— These figs were brought from Carthage. Only three days’ journey from here. That city is rich, fertile — and therefore dangerous! The enemy is at our gates! Carthago delenda est! — (Carthage must be destroyed.)
This was Cato’s rhetorical weapon: he ended almost every speech, no matter the topic, with this refrain. And history remembered it. Rome carried it out: in 146 BCE, after the Third Punic War, Carthage was wiped from the earth. The city was burned, its inhabitants sold into slavery, and its lands formally “cursed.”
On its ruins later rose Roman Carthage, an important provincial capital of Africa, which supplied Rome with vast quantities of grain, wine, and oil. But the greatness of Phoenician Carthage never returned. Its name became a symbol of a city that was “too dangerous to live,” and a reminder of how trade and wine could raise cities — and how geopolitics could destroy them.
The Phoenicians were the first great “wine diplomats”. Their ships crisscrossed the Mediterranean carrying amphorae of wine to Spain, Sicily, and Egypt. Wine was more than a drink: it was exchanged for gold, oil, and timber. Amphorae bore the marks of winemakers, guaranteeing origin — an early prototype of branding.
…Market in Carthage.
In the marketplace amphorae are stacked upright, sealed with pitch, filled with both local and imported wine. A Phoenician merchant sets one on the counter; a Greek customer studies the stamp.
— Wine from Tyre, sweet as honey. Try it, Hellene.
— Too thick… but very well, I’ll take it. Gold is short these days; I’ll pay in olive oil.
They clasp hands — the deal sealed, the feast begins right there in the square.
►1.4 Why Carthaginian Wine Was So Valued in Antiquity
→ Favorable climate and soil.
North Africa was not only desert but also Mediterranean coastline, with mild climate, limestone-rich soils, and sufficient rainfall. These conditions were ideal for viticulture.
→ Phoenician technology.
The Phoenicians — founders of Carthage — were skilled vine growers. They practiced selective breeding of vines, sealed amphorae with resin, and produced sweet, fortified wines resembling today’s dessert wines.
→ Logistics and trade.
Carthage was a maritime power. Its wines could easily reach Spain, Sicily, Greece, and even Gaul. In the ancient market, availability and steady supply mattered as much as taste.
→ Prestige.
In Rome, Carthaginian wines were seen as exotic imports. Their very foreignness worked to their advantage — much like Tokaji at Versailles or Portuguese Port in London centuries later.
1.5 Competition and Customs Duties
Carthaginian wines imported into Rome were subject to taxes. Already in antiquity there existed the so-called portoria — customs duties levied on goods entering ports and cities. These typically amounted to about 5% of the product’s value, bringing millions of sesterces annually into Rome’s treasury.
Carthage was among the wealthiest trading powers of the ancient world. Its wines and oils reached every major city along the Mediterranean coast. For Rome, wine was not merely a drink but a strategic resource. Italy’s own vineyards needed protection — which meant that imported wine, especially from a potential enemy, was burdened with duties.
In the Roman system, customs duties were often tools of politics: tariffs could artificially make foreign goods expensive and unpopular. But after the destruction of Carthage in 146 BCE and the transformation of its lands into the Roman province of Africa, its wines ceased to be “foreign imports.” They entered circulation as provincial Roman wines, with no economic barriers. Yesterday Carthaginian wine was an enemy’s import with duties; today it was provincial wine of Rome, flowing into the market freely.
…Roman port, warehouse by the quay.
The sun beats down; slaves unload amphorae marked with Carthaginian stamps. At the door, a weary customs collector sits with a wax tablet and stylus.
— Well, well… another ten amphorae from Carthage? He taps his stylus against the tablet. – Wine, oil, purple dye… Soon they’ll be bottling air and selling it to Rome as well!
He sighs and scratches a note:
— Duty: one-twentieth. Pay up, merchant. Carthaginians will drown all of Latium in their wine, while our own farmers are left to uproot their vines. Ha!
The merchant shrugs and counts out coins. The collector weighs them in his hand, muttering:
— No matter… The day will come when the Senate decides Carthage brings nothing but trouble. Then there will be no trace of their wine in Rome.
Meanwhile, on the opposite shore of the Mediterranean Sea:
…Carthage, a quay by the city wall.
The sun sinks low as Roman ships enter the harbor, heavy with amphorae and bales of goods: olive oil from Campania, bronze from Etruria, even wine from the slopes of the Capitol.
At the gate of the warehouse sits a Carthaginian customs officer. He squints at the Roman merchant:
— These Latins again? Oil, wine… Do they think we have no vineyards of our own in Carthage?
He scratches a mark on his tablet: import.
— Duty: one-tenth. Pay.
The merchant frowns but opens his purse. The Carthaginian takes his time, counting the coins:
— Let them pay, and let them know: without Carthage, their goods will never reach beyond Africa. The whole western trade route is ours. Even their silver from Spain passes through our hands.
He presses his seal into the clay:
— And Rome? A city of shepherds, nothing more. They will still dance to our tune.
► 1.6 Why Tunisia Is Almost “Off the Map” of the Wine World Today
→ A historical rupture.
After the fall of Carthage in 146 BCE, the Romans continued viticulture in Africa. But in the Middle Ages the region came under Islamic influence. Since alcohol is forbidden in Islamic culture, winemaking almost disappeared.
→The colonial era.
In the 19th–20th centuries, the French revived vineyards in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. But this was done mainly to produce cheap wine for export to France. After decolonization, those markets closed, and most wineries went bankrupt.
→ The modern situation.
Tunisia still produces wine, but primarily for local consumption and the tourist industry. A small portion is exported to France, but it rarely reaches the U.S. or Eastern Europe. The quality can be good, but without international marketing, strong branding, or an appellation system, Tunisian wines remain obscure.
→ Religious and cultural factors.
Tunisia remains a Muslim country, and viticulture is viewed as a secondary sector, not a central one.
Once Carthage had been one of the most famous “wine brands” of antiquity. But religion and politics pushed it into the shadows, leaving the wine legacy of North Africa forgotten.
► 1.7 Decline and Legacy
For Carthage, wine was not just a commodity but part of a vast trading network stretching from the shores of Africa to Spain and Sicily. The Phoenicians knew how to grow vines in a hot climate, how to make wine strong enough to survive long voyages, and their amphorae have been found even on Atlantic coasts.
Each amphora shipped to Italy or Spain was, for the Romans, a challenge: “Their vines reach even to our tables.” Carthaginians fought not only with the sword but with the merchant’s measure — and often an amphora of wine proved stronger than a legionary’s spear.
The Romans perceived a double threat: Carthage gained wealth and influence not by war, but by barrels of wine and loads of oil. As long as Carthaginian amphorae poured out wine, gold coins flowed back to them. The struggle, therefore, was not only for harbors and colonies but for markets — for whose drink would fill the cups of the Mediterranean world.
Wine, like purple dye, symbolized the wealth that became Carthage’s sentence.
In the end, history sided with Rome. But to the very last, Carthage held a second blade in its hand: wine — sweet, yet deadly to its enemies.
Even two thousand years later, taxes on wine remain instruments of politics and influence, wielded in trade wars and through tariff barriers.
Note: Any coincidences of names, places, or images are purely accidental. This text is intended solely as a historical and journalistic narrative.
To be continued: In the next chapter of the series “International Trade in Alcohol” we will cross to the other shore of the Mediterranean — to Ancient Rome. There we will see how taxes on wine and oil filled the imperial treasury, why the slope of Monte Testaccio grew into an entire “hill of amphorae,” and how Roman senators used the alcohol trade as a tool of high politics.
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